История современного города Афины.

Древние Афины
История современных Афин

Древняя Русь: ремесла, их виды, развитие. Древняя русь ремесло

Ремёсла в Древней Руси - WikiVisually

1. Ярослав Всеволодович (князь владимирский) – Yaroslav II, Christian name Theodor was the Grand Prince of Vladimir who helped to restore his country and capital after the Mongol invasion of Russia. Yaroslav was the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and Maria Shvarnovna. In 1200, he was sent by his father to rule the town of Pereyaslav near the Kypchak steppes, six years later, he was summoned by Halychian boyars to rule their city but could not effectively claim the throne. Thereupon he was sent to take Ryazan, but the opposition of the inhabitants led to the city being burnt. In 1209, Vsevolod sent Yaroslav to oppose Mstislav the Bold in Novgorod, after several battles, the two princes made peace, whereby Yaroslav married Mstislavs daughter. Upon his deathbed, Vsevolod the Big Nest bequeathed to him Pereslavl-Zalessky, in the conflict between his elder brothers Konstantin and Yuri, Yaroslav supported the latter. In 1215, he accepted the offer of the Novgorodians to become their prince but, desiring revenge for their treachery, captured Torzhok. Several months later, he was defeated by his father-in-law on the Lipitsa River and had to retreat to Pereslavl, in 1222, Yaroslav, finally enthroned in Novgorod, overran all of Estonia and besieged its capital Kolyvan. Four years later, he devastated Finland and baptised Karelia and his next ambition was to subjugate Pskov, but the Novgorodians refused to make war against its neighbour. Yaroslav departed in anger and seized the Novgorodian enclave of Volokolamsk, in 1234, he returned to Novgorod and several years later defeated its chief enemies—Lithuanians and Teutonic Knights. In 1236, he followed Danylo of Halychs advice and moved from Novgorod to Kiev, in 1238, when the Mongols first invaded Kievan Rus and his elder brother Yuri was killed in battle, Yaroslav left Kiev for Vladimir, where he was crowned grand prince. Yaroslav attempted to restore the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal after the Mongol ravages and fires, in 1243, he was summoned by Batu Khan to his capital Sarai. After a lengthy conference, he returned to Vladimir with honours, two years later, he was again summoned to the east, this time by Güyük Khan in Karakorum. There he was poisoned by the Great khans mother Töregene and died a week after he had allowed to return home. Yaroslav married his first wife c and she was a daughter of Yuri Kondakovich, Khan of the Cumans. Her people belonged to the Kipchaks, a confederation of pastoralists, in 1214, Yaroslav married his second wife Rostislava Mstislavna. She was a daughter of Mstislav the Bold and another Cuman princess and her maternal grandfather was Kotian Khan. In 1218, Yaroslav married his third wife Fedosia Igorevna of Ryazan and she was a daughter of Igor Glebovich and Agrafena of Kiev

2. Государственный исторический музей – The State Historical Museum of Russia is a museum of Russian history wedged between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow. Its exhibitions range from relics of prehistoric tribes that lived on the territory of present-day Russia, the total number of objects in the museums collection comes to millions. The place where the now stands was formerly occupied by the Principal Medicine Store. Several rooms in that building housed royal collections of antiquities, other rooms were occupied by the Moscow University, founded by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1755. The museum was founded in 1872 by Ivan Zabelin, Aleksey Uvarov and several other Slavophiles interested in promoting Russian history, the board of trustees, composed of Sergey Solovyov, Vasily Klyuchevsky, Uvarov and other leading historians, presided over the construction of the museum building. After a prolonged competition the project was handed over to Vladimir Osipovich Shervud, the present structure was built based on Sherwoods neo-Russian design between 1875 and 1881. The first 11 exhibit halls officially opened in 1883 during a visit from the Tsar, then in 1894 Tsar Alexander III became the honorary president of the museum and the following year,1895, the museum was renamed the Tsar Alexander III Imperial Russian History Museum. Its interiors were decorated in the Russian Revival style by such artists as Viktor Vasnetsov, Henrik Semiradsky. During the Soviet period the murals were proclaimed gaudy and were plastered over, the museum went through a painstaking restoration of its original appearance between 1986 and 1997. The library boasts the manuscripts of the Chludov Psalter, Svyatoslavs Miscellanies, Mstislav Gospel, Yuriev Gospel, the museums coin collection alone includes 1.7 million coins, making it the largest in Russia. In 1996, the number of all articles in the collection reached 4,373,757. A branch of the museum is housed in the Romanov Chambers Zaryadye, in 1934 The Museum of Womens Emancipation at the Novodevichy Convent became part of the State Historical Museum. Some of the churches and other buildings are still affiliated with the State Historical Museum. Official website Photo Google Maps satellite photo

3. Оружейная палата – The Kremlin Armoury or Armoury Chamber is one of the oldest museums of Moscow, established in 1851 and located in the Moscow Kremlin. The name Armoury Chamber is officially used by the museum of the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Armoury originated as the arsenal in 1508. Until the transfer of the court to St Petersburg, the Armoury was in charge of producing, purchasing and storing weapons, jewelry, the finest Muscovite gunsmiths, jewelers, and painters used to work there. In 1640 and 1683, they opened the iconography and pictorial studios, in 1700, the Armoury was enriched with the treasures of the Golden and Silver chambers of the Russian tsars. In 1711, Peter the Great had the majority of masters transferred to his new capital,15 years later, the Armoury was merged with the Fiscal Yard, Stables Treasury and the Master Chamber. After that, the Armoury was renamed into the Arms and Master Chamber, Alexander I of Russia nominated the Armoury as the first public museum in Moscow in 1806, but the collections were not opened to the public until seven years later. The current Armoury building was erected in 1844-1851 by the imperial architect Konstantin Ton, the director of the museum from 1852 to 1870 was the writer Alexander Veltman. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Armoury collection was enriched with treasures taken from the Patriarch sacristy, Kremlin cathedrals, monasteries, some of these were sold abroad on behest of Joseph Stalin in the 1930s. In 1960, the Armoury became the museum of the Kremlin. Two years later, the Patriarch chambers and the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles were assigned to the Armoury in order to house the Applied Arts Museum, the Kremlin Armoury is currently home to the Russian Diamond Fund. It boasts unique collections of the Russian, Western European and Eastern applied arts spanning the period from the 5th to the 20th centuries, the ten Fabergé eggs in the Armoury collection are the most Imperial eggs, and the second-most overall Fabergé eggs, owned by a single owner

4. Ремесло – A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. The traditional terms craftsman and craftswoman are nowadays often replaced by artisan, the beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers and began to represent what we think of a craftsman today, historically, craftsmen tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work, once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could call himself a master of his craft. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the era of the Industrial Revolution, thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft. There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science, roughly determinated, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge. Handicraft is the main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods, the individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods, handicraft goods are made with craft production processes. Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of working, glass blowing. A craft fair is an event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, a tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, media related to Crafts at Wikimedia Commons

5. IX век – The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Common Era. Around the 9th century the Igbo people of what is now southeastern Nigeria developed bronze casts of humans, animals and these bronzes, which were used as vessels, amulets, pendants, and sacrificial tools, are among the earliest made bronzes ever found in Nigeria. Most items were part of a burial of a nobleman of the Nri-Igbo culture in the part of Igboland. Long distance trading was also discovered through the thousands of glass found at the sites. The discovery of the bronzes was made by locals from Igbo Ukwu, the Ghana Empire was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. It is considered the first of the Sahelian Kingdoms, which would exist in some form until the early 20th century, Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the 9th century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually conquered by the Danes and this invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the Great Heathen Army, which was supposedly led by Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, and Guthrum. This Danish army first arrived in Britain in 865 in East Anglia, after conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city of York and establish the kingdom of Jorvik. The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of Northumbria and to take all, the remaining kingdom of Wessex was the only kingdom of the Heptarchy left. Alfred re-established Anglo-Saxon rule over the half of Mercia, and the Danelaw was established which separated Mercia into halves. Ireland was also affected by the Viking expansion across the North Sea, extensive raids were carried out all along the coast and eventually permanent settlements were established, such as that of Dublin in 841. Particular targets for these raids were the monasteries on the western coast of Ireland, Ireland in the 9th century was organised into an amalgam of small kingdoms, called tuatha. These kingdoms were sometimes grouped together and ruled by a single, if such a ruler could establish and maintain authority over a portion of these tuatha, he was sometimes granted the title of High King. Scotland also experienced significant Viking incursions during the 9th century, the Vikings established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern islands such as Orkney and Shetland. The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Picts and this may have caused the new king, MacAlpin, to move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. MacAlpin became king of the Picts in 843 and later kings would be titled as the King of Alba or King of Scots, Art in the 9th century was primarily dedicated to the Gospel and employed as basic tools of the Roman Catholic mass. An unknown event causes the decline of the Maya Classical Era, beowulf might have been written down in this century, alternatively, it could also have been in the 8th century. Reign of Charlemagne, and concurrent Carolingian Renaissance in Western Europe, large-scale Viking attacks on Europe begin, devastating countless numbers of people

6. Монгольское нашествие на Русь – As part of the Mongol invasion of Europe, the Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus in the 13th century, destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, and Kiev. The campaign was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in May 1223, a full-scale invasion of Rus by Batu Khan followed, from 1237 to 1240. The invasion was ended by the Mongol succession process upon the death of Ögedei Khan, all Rus principalities were forced to submit to Mongol rule and became part of the Golden Horde empire, some of which lasted until 1480. As it was undergoing fragmentation, Kievan Rus faced the unexpected eruption of a foreign foe coming from the mysterious regions of the Far East. For our sins, writes the Rus chronicler of the time, no one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books, the princes of Rus first heard of the coming Mongol warriors from the nomadic Cumans. In response to call, Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav Romanovich the Old joined forces and set out eastward to meet the foe. In the Secret History of the Mongols, the reference to this early battle is, Then he sent Dorbei the Fierce off against the city of Merv. He sent Subetei the Brave off to war in the North where he defeated eleven kingdoms and tribes, crossing the Volga and Ural Rivers, finally going to war with Kiev. The vast Mongol hordes of around 35,000 mounted archers, commanded by Batu Khan and Subutai, crossed the Volga River and it took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, the Cumans-Kipchaks, and the Alani. In November 1237, Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir, a month later, the hordes besieged Ryazan. After six days of battle, the city was totally annihilated. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the invaders, having burnt down Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to Vladimir on February 4,1238. Three days later, the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal was taken and burnt to the ground, the royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was annihilated by the Mongols in the Battle of the Sit River on March 4. Chinese siege engines were used by the Mongols under Tului to raze the walls of Russian cities, the most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Vasily, son of Titus, and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks, killing 4,000. As the story goes, at the news of the Mongol approach, the town of Kitezh with all its inhabitants was submerged into a lake. The only major cities to escape destruction were Novgorod and Pskov, the Mongols were advancing on Novgorod but unexpectedly turned back at the site mentioned as Ignach Cross, of which the exact location is not known

7. Феодализм – Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour, since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. There is no commonly accepted definition of feudalism, at least among scholars. Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R, outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is often used only by analogy, most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. The term feudalism has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions, the term féodal was used in 17th-century French legal treatises and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as feodal government. In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe systems, effectively coined the forms feudal government. In the 19th century the adjective feudal evolved into a noun, the term feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823, Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the second half of the 19th century. The term feudal or feodal is derived from the medieval Latin word feodum, the etymology of feodum is complex with multiple theories, some suggesting a Germanic origin and others suggesting an Arabic origin. Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a grant in exchange for service was called a beneficium. Later, the term feudum, or feodum, began to replace beneficium in the documents, the first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one-hundred years earlier. The origin of the feudum and why it replaced beneficium has not been well established, the most widely held theory is put forth by Marc Bloch. Bloch said it is related to the Frankish term *fehu-ôd, in which means cattle and -ôd means goods. This was known as feos, a term that took on the meaning of paying for something in lieu of money. This meaning was then applied to itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty. Thus the old word feos meaning movable property changed little by little to feus meaning the exact opposite and this Germanic origin theory was also shared by William Stubbs in the 19th century. Another theory was put forward by Archibald R. Lewis, Lewis said the origin of fief is not feudum, but rather foderum, the earliest attested use being in Astronomuss Vita Hludovici. In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant, another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from fuyū. Samarrais theory is that early forms of fief include feo, feu, feuz, feuum and others, indeed, the first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Muslim Spain

8. Посад – A posad was a settlement in the Russian Empire, often surrounded by ramparts and a moat, adjoining a town or a kremlin, but outside of it, or adjoining a monastery in the 10th to 15th centuries. The posad was inhabited by craftsmen and merchants and was its own distinct community, some posads developed into towns, such as Pavlovsky Posad and Sergiev Posad. During the 1920s administrative territorial reform in the Soviet Union, posads were converted into urban-type settlements, the posad was the center of trade in Ancient Rus. Merchants and craftsmen resided there and sold such as pottery, armor, glass and copperware, icons, and clothing, as well as food, wax. Most large cities were adjoined by a posad, frequently situated below the main citadel, posads were sometimes fortified with earthen walls. As posads developed, they became like villages, membership in the community became hereditary, and posad residents were expected to pay taxes and perform other duties to the state. Leaving the posad required the permission of an elected official, a number of posads evolved into towns. Those by a kremlin often gave rise to local toponyms, such as Nagorny Posad and those by a monastery often gave rise to cities named after the monastery, e. g. Sergiev Posad is named after the nearby Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra

9. XII век – As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century is the period from 1101 to 1200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Common Era. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the High Middle Ages and is called the Age of the Cistercians. In Song dynasty China an invasion by Jurchens caused a schism of north and south. The Khmer Empire of Cambodia flourished during this century, while the Fatimids of Egypt were overtaken by the Ayyubid dynasty, China is under the Northern Song dynasty. Early in the century, Zhang Zeduan paints Along the River During the Qingming Festival and it will later end up in the Palace Museum, Beijing. In southeast Asia, there is conflict between the Khmer Empire and the Champa, Angkor Wat is built under the Hindu king Suryavarman II. By the end of the century the Buddhist Jayavarman VII becomes the ruler, Japan is in its Heian period. The Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga is made and attributed to Toba Sōjō and it ends up at the Kōzan-ji, Kyoto. In Oceania, the Tuʻi Tonga Empire expands to a greater area. Europe undergoes the Renaissance of the 12th century, the blast furnace for the smelting of cast iron is imported from China, appearing around Lapphyttan, Sweden, as early as 1150. Alexander Neckam is the first European to document the mariners compass, Christian humanism becomes a self-conscious philosophical tendency in Europe. Christianity is also introduced to Estonia, Finland, and Karelia, the first medieval universities are founded. Middle English begins to develop, and literacy begins to spread outside the Church throughout Europe, in addition, churchmen are increasingly willing to take on secular roles. By the end of the century, at least a third of Englands bishops also act as judges in secular matters. The Ars antiqua period in the history of the music of Western Europe begins. The earliest recorded miracle play is performed in Dunstable, England Gothic architecture and trouvère music begin in France, during the middle of the century, the Cappella Palatina is built in Palermo, Sicily, and the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript illustrates the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes. Fire and plague insurance first become available in Iceland, and the first documented outbreaks of influenza there happens, the medieval state of Serbia state is formed by Stefan Nemanja and then continued by the Nemanjić dynasty. By the end of the century, both the Capetian Dynasty and the House of Anjou are relying primarily on mercenaries in their militaries, paid soldiers are available year-round, unlike knights who expected certain periods off to maintain their manor lifestyles

10. Металлургия – The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes, the production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production. The roots of metallurgy derive from Ancient Greek, μεταλλουργός, metallourgós, worker in metal, from μέταλλον, métallon, metal + ἔργον, érgon, in the late 19th century it was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English, the pronunciation is the more common one in the UK. The /ˈmetələrdʒi/ pronunciation is the common one in the USA. The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c.40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as daggers from heaven. Certain metals, notably tin, lead and copper, can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace, a process known as smelting. The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennia BC and was found in the sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik. To date, the earliest evidence of copper smelting is found at the Belovode site, other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela, Los Millares, and Stonehenge. However, the ultimate beginnings cannot be ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. These first metals were single ones or as found, about 3500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze, representing a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a variety of past cultures. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, Agricola has been described as the father of metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore, in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically

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Древняя Русь: ремесла, их виды, развитие

Разрушение общинно-родовых отношений и появление специалистов узких отраслей - именно этими изменениями характеризуется в восьмом-девятом веках Древняя Русь. Ремесла приводят к возникновению городов, отделив часть населения от работы на земле. Связано это с появлением первых специалистов - мастеровв отдельных видах ремесла, которые концентрировались в племенных центрах – городах.

Города – центры ремесла

Строить город старались так, чтобы его географическое положение позволяло как можно лучше осуществлять торговлю и в то же время удачно защищаться от врагов. Например, в месте, где сливались две реки, или вокруг холма. В городах селились и представители власти. Поэтому они хорошо охранялись. Постепенно, с развитием ремесла, города стали представлять собой не просто военные укрепления, а превращались в торговые центры.

В центре города располагался кремль, в котором селился князь. Эта часть обносилась крепостной стеной и окружалась земляным валом. Кроме того, вокруг выкапывался глубокий ров, который заполнялся водой. Все эти предосторожности нужны были для защиты от врагов. Снаружи вокруг кремля располагались поселения ремесленников, так называемые слободы. Звалась эта часть города посадом. Во многих населенных пунктах и эта часть окружалась оборонительной стеной.

Жизнь в городах кипела, ремесленники создавали свои товары, ремесло и торговля Древней Руси активно развивались. К двенадцатому веку насчитывалось свыше шестидесяти ремесленных специальностей. Мастера специализировались на изготовлении предметов одежды, посуды, инструментов, в которых нуждалась древняя Русь. Ремесла Древней Руси развивались бурно и стремительно. В поселениях проживали и работали талантливые профессионалы различных областей: мастера кузнечного, ювелирного, гончарного дела, сапожники, портные, ткачи, камнерезы, представители других ремёсел. Руками этих умельцев создавалось экономическое богатство и сила древнерусского государства, его высокая материальная и духовная культура.

Без железа – никуда

Первооткрывателями-профессионалами были кузнецы. Их дело стало одним из важнейших направлений, на которые подразделялись ремесла Древней Руси 9-12 века. Труд этот упоминается в народном эпосе и фольклоре: былинах, преданиях и сказках, где кузнец всегда является образцом силы, мужества и добра. В те времена железо получали путём выплавки из болотной руды. Добывали её в межсезонье, сушили и после этого доставляли в мастерские, где с помощью специальных печей плавили. Так получался металл. Современные археологи при раскопках древнерусских городов часто находили шлаки, которые представляют собой отбросы процесса плавки металлов, и энергично прокованные куски железных масс. Найденные остатки кузнечных мастерских сохранили части горнов и печей, возле которых в своё время трудились ремесленники.

древняя русь ремесла

Найдётся дело кузнецу: товары для воинов и землепашцев

С освоением производства металлов начинается новый виток развития торговли, которого ранее не знала жившая натуральным хозяйством страна. Ремесла Древней Руси, в частности кузнечное дело, имели выраженную практическую направленность. Изделия, производимые кузнецами, требовались всем. В них нуждались воины, заказывавшие оружие – наконечники стрел, боевые топоры, сабли, копья, мечи – и защитное одеяние – кольчуги и шлемы. Производство оружия достигло в Древней Руси особого уровня мастерства, который можно назвать настоящим искусством. Уникальные доспехи были обнаружены в погребениях и некрополях Киева, Чернигова и других городов.

Кованые орудия труда нужны были земледельцам: без железных кос, серпов, сошников, лемехов невозможно было представить обработку угодий. В любом хозяйстве требовались иглы, ножи, пилы, замки, ключи и другие бытовые предметы, изготавливаемые в кузнице талантливыми умельцами. Находки в виде погребений мастеров кузнечного дела показали, что даже в могилы вместе с кузнецами отправлялись их рабочие инструменты – молоты и наковальни, зубила и клещи.

Историки считают, что более 150 видов изделий из металла знала в одиннадцатом веке Древняя Русь. Ремесла Древней Руси играли важную роль в развитии торговли между поселениями.

Мастерство создания украшений

Кузнечных дел мастера иногда занимались и мелкой работой, создавая маленькие шедевры – украшения. Постепенно златокузнечное дело выделилось в отдельную отрасль. Так появилось ювелирное ремесло в Древней Руси. Русские мастера настолько хорошо владели техникой изготовления ювелирных украшений, что оставалось только удивляться, как это им удавалось. Дошедшие до наших времён искусные вещи - амулеты из бронзы, подвески, пряжки, серьги и ожерелья - поражают тонкостью изготовления. Ювелирные украшения создавались в технике зерни, при этом поверх них напаивался узор, основу которого составляло множество металлических шариков. Другим способом изготовления ювелирных изделий была скань. Эта техника характеризуется тем, что рисунок создавался тонкой проволокой, которая напаивалась на поверхность из металла, получившиеся промежутки заполняли эмалью разных цветов. Освоили ювелиры и фигурное литьё, а также требующую особенного искусства технику черни, когда на чёрном фоне располагался узор из серебряных пластинок. До наших дней дошли прекрасные изделия с инкрустациями золотом и серебром по железу и меди. Такие сложные техники свидетельствуют о том, какого высокого уровня достигло развитие ремесел в Древней Руси. Так, руками древнерусских ремесленников создавались высокоценные ювелирные изделия, выполненные в технике перегородчатой эмали. Это было своеобразным брендом русского златокузнечного ремесла. Мастерство русских ювелиров было очень сложной техникой, а их работы распространялись по всему миру и при этом повсюду высоко ценились и пользовались большим спросом.

ювелирное ремесло в древней руси

И кирпичи, и посуду лепили повсюду

Гончарное ремесло Древней Руси выделилось в самостоятельную отрасль немного позже кузнечного. Гончарный круг появился у наших предков в одиннадцатом веке. Это позволило древним умельцам создавать прекрасные изделия. Устройство станка было несложным, он вращался с помощью ножного привода, но посуда, которую удавалось сотворить гончарам того времени, поражает мастерством создания и разнообразием форм. Первоначально изготовление глиняной посуды было женским делом. Однако в литературных рукописных памятниках Киевской Руси есть упоминания только о гончарах-мужчинах.

Они использовали для своих изделий глину, которую специально обрабатывали, смачивая водой и активно разминая. Наибольшим спросом из всех гончарных изделий пользовались горшки и другие сосуды, которые изготавливались разными по величине и использовались в разных целях, в них можно было наливать воду или хранить продукты, ягоды. Горшки ставили в печь и варили пищу. Такая посуда сохранилась до наших дней.

Чем славились древнерусские мастера?

Описывая ремесла Древней Руси 9-12 века, кратко отметим, что русские славяне дохристианского периода умели делать чеканку, производили керамику, владели искусством тонкой вышивки, славились мастерством изготовления эмалей. До наших дней дошли работы киевских художников. Это уникальные образцы резьбы по кости, чернения, гравировки по металлу. Славились по всему миру древнерусские мастера стеклоделия и их изразцы.

Различные осваивала Древняя Русь ремесла, но самым искусным из них была обработка дерева. Из этого материала строились хозяйственные постройки, жилища, ворота и мосты, крепости и стены. Деревянными были лодки, вся хозяйственная утварь щедро украшалась резьбой по дереву. Ни для кого не секрет, что главным сувениром, олицетворяющим художественное ремесло в Древней Руси, является матрешка – красочно расписанная деревянная кукла с пустотой внутри. Из неё достаются одна за другой такие же красотки, и каждая чуть меньше размером, чем предыдущая.

Художественная роспись

Декоративно-прикладные ремесла Древней Руси славились далеко за её пределами. Издавна наши предки восхищали весь мир своим искусством художественной росписи. Разнообразие узорных мотивов в русском орнаменте привело к появлению разных школ и направлений этого народного промысла. Для каждого из них были характерны свои цвета и линии.

Гжель

Яркая синяя роспись кобальтом по белому фону фарфора получила название гжель, которое произошло от имени подмосковного местечка, где данное направление зародилось. Впервые упоминается оно в грамоте Ивана Калиты. Сначала мастера делали посуду и игрушки, позже, с развитием производства, ассортимент значительно расширился. Особой популярностью пользовалась каминная плитка. Гжельская керамика стала популярной по всему свету. Другие росписи наших предков также получали названия от мест своего создания и распространения.

художественное ремесло в древней руси

Яркие краски на тёмном фоне

Жостовская роспись - художественное ремесло в Древней Руси, пришедшее в восемнадцатом веке из подмосковной деревни с одноимённым названием. Представляет собой живопись маслом на подносах из металла. Узнать её легко по ярким красочным цветам, фруктам, птицам, располагающимся на тёмном фоне. Нанесённые узоры затем покрываются специальным лаком, поэтому имеют такой блестящий вид. Техника этой росписи довольно сложна, изображение создаётся в несколько этапов.

Очень жизнерадостные оттенки радуют глаз, поэтому подносы пользовались большой популярностью на Руси и до сих пор являются декоративным элементом во многих домах и учреждениях.

древняя русь ремесла древней руси

Палех

Из районного центра в Ивановской области пришла палехская миниатюра. Этот вид ремесла представляет собой картины на лаковых изделиях. Нанесённые поверх черного фона красочные фольклорные, бытовые, религиозные сюжеты украшают шкатулки, ларцы и другие вещи. Считается, что палехская лаковая миниатюра появилась в пятнадцатом веке, когда расцветом городов и торговли отличалась Древняя Русь. Ремесла зарождались разными способами. Например, такое направление старинного ремесла, как палехская миниатюра, создали древнерусские иконописцы. В Палехе жили искусные художники, которые получали приглашения со всех русских областей для нанесения росписи в храмах и церквях. Именно они и начали расписывать шкатулки всякими сказочными и историческими сюжетами. Все изображения наносились яркими темперными красками поверх чёрного фона.

Технология данного вида ремесла достаточно сложная, сам процесс создания миниатюр трудоёмкий и многоэтапный. Изучать и осваивать его нужно долго, но в результате обычная тёмная коробочка превращается в уникальную по красоте вещь.

декоративно прикладные ремесла древней руси

Хохлома

Ещё один вид ручной росписи по дереву – это хохлома, которая появилась более трёхсот лет назад. Посуда и предметы домашнего обихода, расписанные огненно-алыми цветами, привлекают внимание своей необычностью. Узоры, складывающиеся в красивейшие орнаменты, радуют глаз и в наши дни. В создании хохломских изделий есть секрет, который заключается в том, что их несколько раз покрывают лаком, после чего закаляют в печи. В результате обжига покрытие желтеет, и изделия, созданные из дерева, кажутся позолоченной драгоценной утварью. Кроме того, посуда в результате такой обработки становится прочной. Её покрытие позволяет использовать хохломские чашки, миски, ложки по назначению – для хранения продуктов, для приёма пищи.

ремесла древней руси 18 век

Лубочные картинки

Лубок – ещё один вид народного творчества, представляющий ремесла Древней Руси. Занятие это представляло собой создание оттиска на бумаге с помощью деревянного клише. Такие народные картинки были распространены в ярмарочной торговле ещё в семнадцатом веке и вплоть до начала двадцатого века были самым массовым и распространённым видом русского изобразительного искусства. Сюжеты, отображаемые лубком, весьма разнообразны: религиозные и нравоучительные темы, народный эпос и сказки, исторические и медицинские сведения, которые всегда сопровождались небольшим текстом, который мог быть поучительным или юмористическим и рассказывал о нравах и быте своего времени с присущей народу мудростью.

Ремесла Древней Руси, 18 век: русский самовар

Мастерством наших русских умельцев мы вправе гордиться. Сегодня их работы можно увидеть не только в музеях, но и в наших собственных домах. Некоторые виды ремесел в Древней Руси были особенно популярны. Например, по всей нашей стране и по сей день встречается тульский самовар. В восемнадцатом веке существовало более двухсот различных видов этих изделий. В наше время в городе Туле существует даже музей самоваров.

виды ремесел в древней руси

Кто были первые мастера, которыми так славилась Древняя Русь? Ремесла, к сожалению, не сохранили имён своих создателей. Но с нами говорят вещи, дошедшие до нас из глубины веков. Среди них есть уникальные редкие предметы и бытовая утварь, но в каждом изделии чувствуется умение и опыт древнерусского умельца.

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